How to improve teaching?

Unlocking the insights from these notable experts sheds light on the fundamental principles of learning, making them not only easier to understand but also applicable in teaching. Take Jerome Bruner, a leading voice in constructivism and an early champion of the Theory of Categorization. Ever wondered how knowledge takes shape? Bruner simplifies it:

• “To perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize.”

• typification, conceptualization, and structuration.

                                       Image from HuffPost

This is the core of “learning ability”.  Those with robust learning skills shine in classifying and structuring information. The importance of “Categorization” can’t be overstated. Bruner suggests fostering students’ encoding systems through the widely acclaimed approach of “discovery learning”.

In the realm of discovery learning, students actively shape their own understanding, participating in tasks that involve uncovering patterns and solving puzzles—an undeniably active form of learning. This approach demands constant engagement, requiring students to exercise their existing mental frameworks, adapt, and refine concepts to meet task challenges.

Contrary to the monotony of rote learning, the teacher’s responsibility is not to passively transmit information. Instead, it entails skillfully facilitating the learning process. A competent teacher structures lessons to empower students to uncover relationships between various pieces of information, fostering a more interactive and meaningful educational journey.

While teaching practices worldwide may face challenges in claiming universal success, their guiding principles are notably advanced and closely aligned with the essence of “learning”. During a similar timeframe, another influential figure, equally renowned throughout history, emerged alongside Bruner, challenging established norms: David Paul Ausubel

Ausubel emphasizes the significance of reception over discovery learning, advocating for meaningful understanding instead of rote memorization. He specifies that his theory is tailored for reception learning in school environments. While he doesn’t dismiss the effectiveness of discovery learning, he asserts its inefficiency. In essence, Ausubel contends that grasping concepts, principles, and ideas is best achieved through deductive reasoning.

If we consider Bruner as the “idealist” in cognitive theory, then Ausubel can be seen as the “realist” in cognitive theory. His theory posits that

• both receptive and discovery learning can either be mechanical or meaningful. Teaching, according to him, should strive for “meaningful learning” rather than other approaches.

Now, what exactly is “meaningful learning”? Ausubel provides his definition:

• "a clearly articulated and precisely differentiated conscious experience that emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols, concepts, or propositions are related to and incorporated within a given individual's cognitive structure"

Ausubel proposed the “Advance Organizer” teaching approach as part of his theory of meaningful learning. This approach involves providing an overview or framework of the new material to be learned before delving into the details. The goal is to activate students’ prior knowledge and provide a structure that helps them better understand and integrate the new information. Ausubel believed that this approach enhances meaningful learning by connecting new information with existing cognitive structures.

Accordingly, Ausubel strongly advocates two practical teaching methods:

• “Meaningful Reception Learning” (essentially lecture-style teaching) — not merely regurgitating information but emphasizing connections with students’ existing experiences.
• “Guided Discovery Learning” (known as “heuristic teaching”)

Ausubel underscores that student learning should primarily revolve around “meaningful reception learning” because acquiring knowledge under the guidance and impartation of teachers is the most economical, fastest, and effective learning approach. In contrast to discovery-based teaching, Ausubel’s “heuristic teaching” aims not to cultivate scientists or scientific inquiry skills but to leave learners with a more profound impression and the ability to quickly alter their cognitive structures.

In heuristic teaching, teachers don’t directly provide conclusions. Instead, they present suitable materials, pose thoughtful questions, engage students in critical thinking, offer appropriate guidance and hints, allowing students to draw conclusions as independently as possible.

While Ausubel’s advocated teaching methods might not appear as revolutionary as Bruner’s “discovery learning,” they are practical, high

Discovery learning involves students actively exploring, while meaningful learning focuses on making connections between new and existing knowledge in a purposeful way. The choice between these approaches often depends on the educational context and the nature of the subject matter.

Bruner and Ausubel stand as distinguished representatives of “cognitivism.” Within the realm of “cognitivism,” one cannot overlook the profoundly impactful and systematic theory, namely, “Information Processing Theory”. Although it may appear as a singular theory, each step actually comprises one or several theories, forming an extensive theoretical framework.

Each theory within this framework, exemplified by “Cognitive Load Theory” and “Dual Coding Theory,” is proposed by eminent psychologists. These theories not only underpin many teaching methodologies but also encapsulate fundamental principles. For instance, John Sweller’s “Cognitive Load Theory”, widely acknowledged as the “most instructive theory for teaching,” provides valuable insights into common errors made by new teachers and guides the instructional techniques employed by experienced educators.

Another example is Paivio’s “Dual Coding Theory”, seemingly unassuming yet serving as the foundational theory for multimedia instruction, visualization techniques, and contextualized teaching.

While delving into various intricacies, the Information Processing Theory cannot be exhaustively enumerated within the limitations of this discussion.

In conclusion, “cognitivism” is a paramount conceptual framework for comprehending the dynamics of learning. It fundamentally reveals cognitive regularities, with the majority of research retaining practical guidance today. This implies that, regardless of the type of educational reform or adoption of supposedly “advanced” models—such as “constructivism,” self-directed learning, collaborative learning, or PBL—deviating from the cognitive patterns revealed by “cognitivism” in teaching practice will inevitably pose challenges.

Learning theories will continue to iterate and evolve. However, subsequent theories, like Constructivism, do not entirely replace cognitivism; rather, they offer multiple perspectives and different dimensions for interpreting the mechanisms of learning.

In our next newsletter, we will delve further into the topic of Constructivism.

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References:

1."Compulsory Course for Enhancing Pedagogical Theoretical Knowledge: Learning Theories", from https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/89GsIaZnMBwzed8d7DB_1Q

2."Jerome Bruner’s Theory Of Learning And Cognitive Development", from https://www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html

3.Zhihu Baike "Jerome Bruner", from https://www.zhihu.com/topic/20387833/intro

4."University of Wyoming, ADED5050 Learning Theories for Educators", from https://www.uwyo.edu/aded5050/5050unit8/bruner.asp

5."Jerome Bruner’s Theory Of Learning And Cognitive Development" from https://www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html#Discovery-Learning-Theory

6.Wikipedia "David Ausubel", from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ausubel

7."Learning Theories", from https://dl.icdst.org/pdfs/files1/7e9bd5801e72bf80a66e4b3fd0b06c50.pdf

Author: Yirui (Sandy) Jiang
Chief Editor: Yirui (Sandy) Jiang