Newsletter#3: Educational Theory and Philosophy Series: Three Core Natures of Constructivism

In our last Newsletter, we explored the influential theory of cognitivism in the field of education. While cognitivism has become widely recognized, it has also given rise to the development of constructivist theory.

With the rapid development of multimedia, computers, and the Internet in education, constructivist learning theory is increasingly demonstrating its vitality. It is expanding its influence globally, reshaping how knowledge is perceived and learned in the digital age.

Constructivism, initially introduced by Jean Piaget and Vygotsky, also counts among its key advocate figures like Jerome Bruner, Seymour Papert, Robert J. Sternberg and Rand J. Spiro.

Constructivist theory argues that knowledge isn’t simply imparted by teachers, but is instead constructed by learners within specific contexts, influenced by their social and cultural environments. This process of constructing meaning is supported by the help of others, including teachers and peers, and by utilizing essential learning resources. 

This Newsletter is dedicated to outlining the principal attributes of constructivism, elaborating on cognitivism's foundational principles. Building on cognitivism's foundational principles, constructivism places additional emphasis on the “three natures” of learning: situational, proactive, and collaborative.

The first nature of learning in constructivism is “Situational.” Differing from the cognitivist perspective on epistemology and pedagogy, constructivism posits that learning is an activity rooted in social interaction and collaboration, rather than merely a theoretical concept (Dewey, 1938). It emphasizes that understanding knowledge is impossible without its specific context. In essence, all knowledge represented through language and symbols originates from contexts, processed through the thoughts of predecessors, and is summarized and named through activities like categorization and induction. To comprehend knowledge, one must return to its context.

Image from Educarepk

Therefore, the most crucial task for teachers is to design learning contexts. In our first Newsletter, we presented an example of context-based instructional design.

Indeed, in cognitive theory, approaches like discovery learning, meaningful learning, and guided discovery learning also revolve around “context.” However, constructivism emphasizes “intricate, real-world contexts,” cautioning against oversimplification. Hence, approaches like practical teaching, problem-solving instruction, and Project-Based Learning (PBL) are seen as constructivist teaching strategies. This means that in a constructivist learning environment, instructional design involves not just analyzing teaching objectives but also creating contexts conducive to students’ construction of meaning, viewing this creation of context as one of the most crucial elements of instructional design.

 Image from Educationaltechnology

The second nature in constructivism is “Proactivity,” emphasizing students’ active engagement in learning. Learning is not about teachers simply transferring knowledge to students; instead, it’s about students constructing knowledge themselves. Rather than passively receiving information, students actively construct meaning based on their own experiential background, actively selecting, processing, and handling external information to derive their own understanding. An individual’s pre-existing knowledge affects how they develop new or revised understanding based on fresh learning experiences (Phillips, 1995). During this process, a learner’s existing knowledge adjusts and changes with the incorporation of new information.

Therefore, constructivism highlights the active construction of knowledge and the importance of students’ existing knowledge in “active learning.” Contemporary teaching methods like MOOCs, Small Private Online Courses (SPOC), and flipped classrooms exemplify this active learning approach. However, we need to differentiate: are we emphasizing active participation in action, or proactive engagement in thought? This distinction is important because, in the “heuristic teaching” advocated by David Paul Ausubel, learners are also required to engage in active thinking and discover patterns independently.

Image from Nature

The third nature in constructivism is “Collaborative.” This aspect is indeed a unique contribution of constructivism, one that other learning theories have not emphasized or researched extensively. A key figure in the concept of social constructivism is Lev Vygotsky, a psychologist from the former Soviet Union. His influence and theories were not widely recognized until after his death, at which point they spread to the United States and gained global recognition. Vygotsky proposed many fundamental learning principles that warrant serious attention.

For instance, in his book “Thought and Language,” he provided a detailed and persuasive argument about the role of language in shaping thought. Through extensive research, he demonstrated the relationship between language and thought:

Language begins as a social tool for communication between a child and their environment. With time, this language is absorbed by children, who begin to use it for cognitive processing, a transformation Vygotsky called “internalization.” Vygotsky believed that concepts cannot be directly taught but need to be understood through experience and comprehension, an approach that has deeply influenced the disciplines of education and psychology.

• Internalization: Initially, language acts as a communicative bridge between a child and their environment. With time, this language is absorbed by children, who begin to use it for cognitive processing, a transformation Vygotsky called “internalization.” For Vygotsky, internal speech (thinking) is essentially social speech turned inward.
• Socio-Cultural Context: According to Vygotsky, concepts can’t be imparted directly; they must be grasped through lived experiences and understanding.

If direct teaching is not possible, then what is the solution? This question is left for our readers to ponder.

Consider a scenario where a student asserts they have grasped a concept. But does this assertion genuinely reflect comprehension?

Vygotsky would say: Not necessarily.

He argued that ‘Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals’(Vygotsky,1978). In other words, what we eventually come to do independently, and internally starts as a shared activity – underscoring the importance of social relationships and cultural context in cognitive development.

Image generated by ChatGPT

Even if a student genuinely understands, the nature of this understanding is often ‘intuitive and cannot be explicitly taught.’ So, what should be done? Vygotsky suggests: Let them express it.

Image created by ChatGPT

This is because any expression is a translation of an individual’s internal understanding. In the process of this “translation,” due to the influence of language on thought, the learner transforms intuition into explicit expression. In doing so, their thinking becomes clearer and more precise, and their understanding is elevated.

So, who should students communicate with? Following this logic, a conclusion about learning proposed by Ausubel is:

• Students must engage in a “collaborative” process to truly understand a concept.

In this article, we’ve focused on certain aspects of constructivism and some educational theories from its notable figures. Educational theories have continuously evolved and been revised over time. Grasping these theories can lead to a deeper understanding of the underlying principles of various teaching methods and strategies. Such understanding allows educators to perceive the core essence of these approaches, aligning with the First Principle Thinking. More on teaching theories and strategies will be shared in our future newsletters.

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References:

1. Wikipedia: Constructivism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_education)

2. Wikipedia: Constructivist Teaching Methods: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_teaching_methods

3. "A required Course for Enhancing Theoretical Level in Teaching:'Learning Theories'": https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/89GsIaZnMBwzed8d7DB_1Q

4. "Constructivism Learning Theory & Philosophy Of Education": https://www.simplypsychology.org/constructivism.html

5. "Constructivism": https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/constructivism

6. "12 Famous Teaching Theories": https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/QSSpzN-PT2_H0oBqwZkBcA

7. "Famous Educational Teaching Theory: Constructivist Teaching Theory": https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/RcG6iMZe6OX4qVBdjIqssA

8. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: The Macmillan Company.

9. Phillips, D.C. (1995). The Many Faces of Constructivism. Educational Researcher, 24(7), 5-12. doi:10.3102/0013189X024007005

10. Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

11. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press.